19th Century
After the opening of the Suez Canal, Britain, Italy, France and Ethiopia divided amongst themselves the area of territory inhabited by the Somali people. Five areas were divided arbitrarily and bore little or no relation to ethnic, cultural, linguistic or economic divisions.

The areas created were British Somaliland, French Somaliland, Italian Somalia, Ethiopian Ogaden and what become known as the Northern Frontier District (NFD), part of British Kenya. The imposed colonial boundaries had severe repercussions on the important pastoral economy and the movement of clans and families.

1925
Britain ceded most of its Somaliland territory to Italy

WWII
World War II saw the defeat of fascist Italy at the hands of local resistance and allied forces. Consequently under the Bevin plan a British military administration took over southern Somalia until 1950 when against fierce local opposition it was returned to Italy as part of a United Nations trusteeship.

The union of Somaliland and the U.N. trust territory of Somalia (ruled by Italy) took place against a background of economic boom and social progress in Somaliland. The picture in Somalia was altogether different; economic deprivation had led to deepening social stagnation and poverty.

There was no commercial sector to compare with that of Somaliland, as Italian colonialism was far less keen than the English system in promoting or developing education and basic social services despite its obligations under the U.N. trusteeship.

It is alleged that the insistence of the Egyptian ambassador Kamal-Eddin Salah in monitoring educational targets and pressurising the Italians in attaining them led to his brutal assassination in Mogadishu.

The union of the two ex-colonies with differing colonial legacies and administrations had negative economic and social repercussions on Somaliland. For such reasons, the 1950's are often seen by the people of Somaliland as a golden age in their history, looking back on it with nostalgia, regretful about their union with Somalia.


1969
Siyad Barre established himself as ruler after a successful military coup. He set up the Supreme Revolutionary Council under the guise of 'Scientific Socialism.' A front of socialist ideology was used as justification for sweeping reforms and decrees.

1970
One of Barre's first decrees was to abolish "tribalism" by making illegal any recognition of clan distinctions. The justification for such a move was to promote economic, political and social advancement. This decree and many other 'Nationalist' projects served mainly the consolidation of the State and Barre's power.

The National Security Service (NSS) was created to supervise and control the masses. Any disloyalty or subversive behaviour was deemed to be treason and strictly punishable.

Military aid from the Soviet Union was starting to pour in.

Amnesty International Report describing Siyad Barre's grip on power:

"The president is in direct control of all facets of state power, including the security institutions and all branches of the judiciary, and the constitution is so drafted that no provision obstructs his exercise of all decision-making should he wish it."

(1990:9)

1977
The fall of Emporer Haile Selassie in Ethiopia spurs Barre into invading the Ogaaden area of eastern Ethiopia with the premise of reclaiming territory from Ethiopian control. One of Barre's nationalist projects was to bring together Somalis throughout the Horn of Africa into one nation-state


1978
Geo-political shifts and Cold War tactics provoke a dramatic turn of alliances for Siyad Barre. Links are mutually severed with Somalia by Moscow and Cuba who stop any military or financial back-up. They instead send massive military support to the new Marxist-Ethiopian government.

Somalia is defeated and Barre distributes masses of arms along the northern region to his people, in order to protect themselves along the disputed territory for fear of Ethiopian attacks. The consequent failure to capture Ethiopia and unite Somalia leads to internal struggles and rifts.


The early 1980's
Saw the economic and political situation in the former Somalia worsen dramatically. The military regime of Siyad Barre adopted what can only be described as genocidal policies of indiscriminate state terrorism against the civilians in the former Somaliland protectorate. Consequently the country descended into a state of civil war, it has been estimated that more than 1 million people were forced to flee their homes and lands.

1980
The changes in Cold War geopolitics sparked United States interest and investment in the Somali territory. Somalia needed to be bought into the anticommunist fold, as it was seen as a good strategic point near the Middle East and the Persian Gulf to combat the 'spread of communism and Soviet influence in the region. The consequences of this were grave:

- Massive militarisation process.

- Increasing concentration of state power in the hands of Siyad Barre and his family.

- Complete disintegration of popular trust in the government.

- Human rights abuses and State-backed terror.

- Pan-Somalia becomes a distant goal.

- Foreign aid from many other countries also pours in: Italy, Britain, Germany, Saudi Arabia and China.

The value of arms alone imported by Somalia during the two decades of Barre's rule is totalled to be nearly two billion U.S. dollars.
((Lefebvre 1991:33) 'Arms from the horn: U.S. security policy in Ethiopia And Somalia 1953-1991', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.). This massive influx of foreign money as is often the case served more harm than good. In the case of Italy, Somalia became a laundering point for dirty money which lined the pockets of corrupt government and business leaders. (See Italy>Colonial Legacy)

The redistribution of wealth, land and foreign aid carried out by Barre were popularly seen to be clan-based instead of ideologically socialist in nature. He consolidated power and advanced his own and his relatives' political careers rather than that of his 'people'.

A resistance movement was formed; the Somali National Movement (SNM) mainly composed by the Isaaq clan of ex-British Somaliland and other Somalis in exile.


1987
August- Riots break out in Mogadishu against a background of shortages and spiralling food and fuel prices. The riots forced the government to make a number of concessions perhaps mindful that a similar context had heralded the Ethiopian revolution of 1977 and the fall of Haile Selassie's long regime.


1988
The SNM launches on a series of attacks in the northern territory. A guerrilla war against government installations commences. The government retaliated by viciously butchering it's own people, killing tens of thousands and displacing a million. (Human Rights Watch 1989)

There was bombing and strafing of entire villages and towns in Somaliland.

Refugees flood into neighbouring countries and Europe. 1988 is the main date of entry in the U.K. for Somali refugees.


1989
The series of reports from International Human Rights organisations finally force America to take stock of the situation and drastically reduce aid, realising they could no longer ignore it was being used for arms and state repression's.

The anti-Barre United Somali Congress (USC) is formed. By now Barre is openly waging war against his own citizens.


1990
Resistance spreads to the rest of the country. Resistance groups were mainly formed in exile, the USC in Rome and the SNM in London. Lewis comments that this is: "a salient reminder of the connections between colonial history and regional identity." (I.M. Lewis, Blood and bone: the call of kinship in Somali society. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press)


1991
Jan 27 - Mogadishu is captured by the USC; this triggers the fall of Siyad Barre's regime and is the prelude to total disintegration. Much of Somalia disintegrates into wars between resistance leaders and their followers. "Warlords" are fighting for possession and control of regions.

A severe drought and famine aggravate the situation. There is a near genocide in the Jubba valley region.

The opposition groups are mainly clan-based and tend to focus on the areas historically controlled by them: The Somali national movement (SNM) operated in the Issaq inhabited areas of northern Somalia; the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) in the Mudug region primarily inhabited by Majerteen.

The United Somali Congress (USC) in the Hawiye territory of the central regions, whilst the Somali democratic movement carried out operations (SDM) in the inter-riverine regions predominantly populated by Reewin.

Other groups were fighting to defend the territorial gains they had made since independence in the inter-riverine and coastal regions of the south. The Somali Patriotic Movement, representing the Ogaden people, operated in the Middle and Lower Juba valley; the Somali National Front, representing the Mahrehan, was based in the Gedo region; and the Somali National Alliance, a Habargedir faction occupied the regions of Banadir.
See MEDIA reporting of events.

May - Elders of clans in former British Somaliland established the independent Republic of Somaliland, which although not recognized by any government, to this day maintains a stable existence, aided by the overwhelming dominance of the ruling clan and the economic infrastructure left behind by British, Russian and American military assistance programmes. Neighbouring Puntland makes strides towards reconstructing legitimate, representative government, with a number of regional administrations.


1992
The U.N. belatedly steps in and begins negotiations between warring factions.
December: With much fanfare and self-publicity America sends in troops in order 'to secure food supplies for starving refugees'. The operation was named 'Restore Hope', camera crews jostled for space on the beach eager to get the best shots of soldiers.

Bush's justification for sending in troops was to prevent Somalis "ripping off their own people" and help the food distribution. How much was actually done to tackle the causes of the civil war remains unclear.

The international aid agency Médecins Sans Frontieres claimed that US figures for malnutrition were out of date and a pretext for sending in troops, which would heighten hunger by shattering the fragile balance between aid agencies supplying food and the clans.

There is no longer a national police force or central government. The country is split between rival "warlords". The most powerful "warlords" were Aideed, a general and former government minister and ambassador to India. Mahdi is one of his former clan members, and Morgan, a general son-in-law of Barre.

After Barre's army is forced out of the country Aideed and his militia loot Baidoa and the south of the country again. Baidoa, the capital of the region becomes known as 'city of the walking dead'. Looting and rampaging increases after the US marine's land in Mogadishu. General Aideed and his militia exemplified genocidal policies when they blocked food shipments from the inter-riverine area.

Throughout 1992, and even before the US Marines landed on the shores of Mogadishu, militia loyal to Aideed deliberately prevented food from reaching Baidoa and other parts of southern Somalia. It is estimated that the death rate in Baidoa rose to 5,979 people a month, or nearly 200 a day.


1993
May, Violence in Mogadishu continues after authority for the peacekeeping effort is transferred from U.S. to UN forces. The United States withdraw due to facing an 'unacceptable number of American casualties.'


1995
The U.N also withdraws, having suffered significant casualties; order still has not been restored. The U.N humanitarian effort to alleviate famine conditions (primarily in the south) has run out of time.

- Jan - Siyad Barre dies in exile in Lagos, Nigeria

- Feb - Baidoa host the Pan-Digil and Mirifle Congress. The first conference of its kind in the region. Representatives of various clans, religious leaders, businessmen, intellectuals and rulers of the Digil and Mirifle clans attend the conference. The main purpose of the congress is to voice their demands for regional autonomy by recommending the creation of four federated states within Somalia.
The proposals were seen as a direct threat to the "warlords" fighting for control of the region and two "warlords" in particular, General Aideed in the Shabelle valley and Morgan in the Juba valley.

- September - Baidoa is re-captured by Aideed and his forces, putting an end to the newly established political infrastructure. Members of the elected council either flee, are either killed or taken to Mogadishu to be detained and tortured. Aideed's invasion takes the town back to the famine days of 1992 and 1993.

The Reewin Resistance Army (RRA) is formed, composed of young officers and intellectuals who managed to flee from the capture and occupation of Baidoa.

- October - The group begins attacking Aideed's forces. It seems that the RRA did not produce a political programme, but simply declared its intention to liberate the region from what it viewed as invaders.


1996
The EU and Italy agree to partly finance reconstruction and other aid projects.

Huddur, the capital city of the Bakool region is invaded. Aideed's militias have now complete political and economic control over the inter-riverine region.

Aideed's militias carry on killing hundreds of innocent people, raping women, destroying farms and burning food stores throughout the region. Aideed's son takes over from his father with no change in policy over the region.


1997
Rahanwein villages are torched and civilians killed by the forces of Hussein Mohamed Aideed.


1998
The Puntland State of Somalia is formally launched. In November, the Colonel Abdullahi Yusuf, leader of the Puntland Regional State, outlaws the carrying and possession of arms, except for the police and the administration's Special Forces.

Somaliland and Puntland, although the most stable examples, are not the only regional governments with authority over designated areas. Former Somalia is dominated by a mesh of locally formed groups of varying sizes, "Warlords" are still a presence, and compete for local power. However, their power though has been greatly diminished and is in no way comparable to the situation in the early 1990's.


1999
June, after heavy fighting Hussein Aideed admits defeat, losing the city of Baidoa to the RRA. The RRA also set up their own regional administration, becoming the fourth group in Somalia to have an administration. The RRA announces it favours a system of federal government. Security and quality of life in the area is said to have improved dramatically. However, scores of unarmed civilians though are still being killed in inter-factional fighting throughout southern Somalia.